Division of Nuclear Power

PROGRAMME

The mission of the Division of Nuclear Power is carried out under the following six subprogrammes:

1. Integrated support for operating nuclear facilities
2. Support for expansion of nuclear power plants
3. Infrastructure and planning for the introduction of nuclear power programmes
4. Coordination of the International Project on Innovative Nuclear Reactors and Fuel Cycles (INPRO)
5. Technology Development for Advanced Reactor Lines
6. Support for Non-Electric Applications of Nuclear Power

RATIONALE

Enlarging the benefits of the peaceful uses of nuclear science and technology is a fundamental mandate for the Agency. This programme provides the core engineering, technological and management support to interested Member States in the field of nuclear power with special emphasis on the needs of developing countries. Three important goals have guided the formulation of priorities:

• The first is to respond to the needs of interested Member States in improving their national nuclear power programmes and infrastructures and evaluate the need for possible replacement technology within the country. Those needs are especially important with regard to the performance and life management and optimization of nuclear power plants, including national decisions on the phase out of nuclear power and/or possible decommissioning. This will be through the provision of a worldwide pool of information and expertise on internationally accepted and proven engineering and management practices in all relevant areas, including technical and human performance improvement, change management, implementation of management systems and a total quality management approach to nuclear power plant operations.
• The second is to act as a catalyst for innovation and to assist, as appropriate, in the resolution of scientific and technological issues in the area of nuclear power, including electricity generation and application for other uses such as desalination and hydrogen production. The Agency will coordinate research, promote information exchange and analyse technical data and results for various reactor lines (such as advanced water cooled reactors, high temperature gas cooled reactors, liquid metal cooled reactors and accelerator driven systems), and for innovative nuclear energy systems (INSs), including small and medium sized reactors (SMRs). The focus will be on supporting the establishment of nuclear power as a sustainable energy source for various applications, especially considering competitive economics, achieving very high levels of safety and proliferation resistance, effective use of resources and minimization of waste. The International Project on Innovative Nuclear Reactors and Fuel Cycles (INPRO) will provide a forum for the coordination of programmes in Member States on INS development and for system analysis of the future role of nuclear energy on a regional and global basis.
• Finally, it is important to manage, preserve and further enhance nuclear expertise, knowledge and competence in support of Member States, and sustain the Agency´s unique position as the leading global international organization in the nuclear field. The Agency will continue to provide and update databases and knowledge supporting the optimization of performance, service life and infrastructure of nuclear power plants, and supporting advanced reactor technology development and applications in Member States. This approach will allow for the expansion of partnerships and exchange of information to facilitate the beneficial use of nuclear energy, including non-electrical applications.

FOR FURTHER DETAILS

The Nuclear Power Engineering Section (NPES) and Nuclear Power Technology Development Section (NPTDS) under the Division of Nuclear Power are responsible for the implementation of the six sub-programmes. For further details on these sub-programmes please follow the links.

• Engineering and Management Support for Competitive Nuclear Power
• Nuclear Power Technology Development and Applications

Asean Nuclear Society

Asean Nuclear Society

Vision

IPTEK NUKLIR UNTUK KEMAJUAN ASEAN

Mission

Kerjasama Pembangunan IPTEK Nuklir di ASEAN

Program

Reaktor Fusi

Reaktor Fusi

External Heating Systems

The ITER Tokamak will rely on three sources of external heating to bring the plasma to the temperature necessary for fusion.

The temperatures inside the ITER Tokamak must reach 150 million° Celsius — or ten times the temperature at the core of the Sun — in order for the gas in the vacuum chamber to reach the plasma state and for the fusion reaction to occur. The hot plasma must then be sustained at these extreme temperatures in a controlled way in order to extract energy.

A Neutral Beam Injector and two types of high-frequency electromagnetic waves will help bring the plasma to temperatures exceeding 150 million°C.

The ITER Tokamak will rely on three sources of external heating that work in concert to provide the input heating power of 50 MW required to bring the plasma to the temperature necessary for fusion. These are neutral beam injection and two sources of high-frequency electromagnetic waves.

Ultimately, researchers hope to achieve a "burning plasma" — one in which the energy of the Helium nuclei produced by the fusion reaction is enough to maintain the temperature of the plasma. The external heating can then be strongly reduced or switched off altogether. A burning plasma in which at least 50 percent of the energy needed to drive the fusion reaction is generated internally is an essential step to reaching the goal of fusion power generation.

Neutral Beam Injection

Using injection to heat the fuel in the ITER Tokamak is very much like using steam in the household cappuccino machine to heat milk. Neutral Beam Injectors are used to shoot uncharged high-energy particles into the plasma where, by way of collision, they transfer their energy to the plasma particles.

Before injection, Deuterium atoms must be accelerated outside of the Tokamak to a kinetic energy of 1 Mega electron Volt (MeV). Only atoms with a positive or a negative charge can be accelerated by electric field; for this, electrons must be removed from neutral atoms to create a positively-charged ion. The process must then be reversed before injection into the fusion plasma; otherwise the electrically-charged ion would be deflected by the magnetic field of the plasma cage. In Neutral Beam Injection systems, the ions pass through a cell containing gas where they recover their missing electron and can be injected as fast neutrals into the plasma.

It's all about kinetic energy - the Neutral Beam Injector accelerates fast neutralized Deuterium particles into the plasma.

The large plasma volume at ITER will impose new requirements on this proven method of injection: the particles will have to move three to four times faster than in previous systems in order to penetrate far enough into the plasma, and at these higher rates the positively-charged ions become difficult to neutralize. At ITER, for the first time, a negatively-charged ion source has been selected to circumvent this problem. Although the negative ions will be easier to neutralize, they will also be more challenging to create and to handle than positive ions. The additional electron that gives the ion its negative charge is only loosely bound, and consequently readily lost.

Two Neutral Beam Injectors are currently foreseen for ITER. A third Neutral Beam will be used for diagnostic purposes.

Ion Cyclotron Heating

The ITER Ion Cyclotron antennae will look a lot like these being installed at JET in the UK. Photo: JET

Ion and Electron Cyclotron heating methods use radio waves at different frequencies to bring additional heat to the plasma, much in the same way that a microwave oven transfers heat to food through microwaves. In Ion Cyclotron Resonance Heating (ICRH), energy is transferred to the ions in the plasma by a high-intensity beam of electromagnetic radiation with a frequency of 30 to 50MHz.

A generator, transmission lines and an antenna are necessary for Ion Cyclotron heating. A generator produces high-power radio frequency waves that are carried along a transmission line to an antenna located in the Vacuum Vessel, sending the waves into the plasma.

Electron Cyclotron Heating

Electron Cyclotron Resonance Heating (ECRH) heats the electrons in the plasma with a high-intensity beam of electromagnetic radiation at a frequency of 100 to 200MHz; the resonant frequency of electrons. The electrons in turn transfer the absorbed energy to the ions by collision.

The Electron Cyclotron heating system is also used to deposit heat in very specific places in the plasma, as a mechanism to minimize the build-up of certain instabilities that lead to cooling of the plasma. In comparison to the ICRH system, the ECRH has the advantage that the beam can be transmitted through air which simplifies the design and allows the source to be far from the plasma, simplifying maintenance. Power will be provided by powerful, high-frequency gyrotrons as power sources. The ITER design includes the development of a 1 MW gyrotron operating at 170 GHz with a pulse duration of more than 500 s.

Sumber:

Web Resmi ITER

Fusi Nuklir

The next step after ITER will be a demonstration power plant - or DEMO - that will demonstrate the viability of producing large-scale electricity from fusion. Progress in Fusion Fusion is one of nature's most spectacular achievements. Billions and billions of fusion furnaces, the Sun among them, are flaring in the Universe, creating light and energy. Some seventy years ago scientists understood the physics behind this wonder: the Sun and stars transmute matter, patiently and tirelessly transforming Hydrogen nuclei into Helium atoms and releasing huge amounts of energy in the process. With this knowledge came the ambition to reproduce, here on Earth, what was happening in the innumerable stars of the Universe. But harnessing the energy of the stars was to prove a formidable task, more complex and arduous than anticipated. 20th Century Fusion The world's first tokamak device: the Russian T1 Tokamak at the Kurchatov Institute in Moscow. It was the first device to use a stainless steel liner within a copper vacuum chamber. Following the first fusion experiments in the 1930s, fusion physics laboratories were established in nearly every industrialized nation. By the mid-1950s "fusion machines" were operating in the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, the United States, France, Germany and Japan. Through these, scientists' understanding of the fusion process was gradually refined. A major breakthrough occurred in 1968 in the Soviet Union. Researchers there were able to achieve temperature levels and plasma confinement times - two of the main criteria to achieving fusion - that had never been attained before. The Soviet machine was a doughnut-shaped magnetic confinement device called atokamak. From this time on, the tokamak was to become the dominant concept in fusion research, and tokamak devices multiplied across the globe. Producing fusion energy, it soon became clear, would require marshalling the creative forces, technological skills, and financial resources of the international community. The Joint European Torus (JET) in Culham, U.K., in operation since 1983, was a first step in this direction. JET is collectively used by the EURATOM (European Atomic Energy Community) Associations from more than 20 European countries. In 1991, the JET tokamak achieved the world's first controlled release of fusion power. Research and development for ITER pointed to coconut-shell charcoal as the most efficient coating material for the cryopanels that keep the vacuum in the ITER Tokamak clean. A supply of 2002 Indonesian coconut charcoal is being stored at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology in Germany for ITER's cryopumps. Photo: Peter Ginter Steady progress has been made since in fusion devices around the world. The Tore Supra Tokamak that is part of the Cadarache nuclear research centre holds the record for the longest plasma duration time of any tokamak: six minutes and 30 seconds. The Japanese JT-60 achieved the highest value of fusion triple product - density, temperature, confinement time -of any device to date. US fusion installations have reached temperatures of several hundred million degrees Celsius. Achievements like these have led fusion science to an exciting threshold: the long sought-after plasma energy breakeven point. Breakeven describes the moment when plasmas in a fusion device release at least as much energy as is required to produce them. Plasma energy breakeven has never been achieved: the current record for energy release is held by JET, which succeeded in generating 70% of input power. Scientists have now designed the next-step device - ITER - which will produce more power than it consumes: for 50 MW of input power, 500 MW of output power will be produced. ITER will begin writing the chapter on 21st century fusion. Sumber: Web Resmi ITER

Nuclear Education Center

Nuclear Education Center

Visi

Riset dan Pengembangan Pendidikan Nuklir

Misi

Jaringan Pendidikan Nuklir

Program

Pengenalan dan Edukasi Nuklir kepada Sekolah-sekolah

Fokus

Pendidikan Nuklir

From: 

Nuclear Education Online (NEO) is an educational consortium between the University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences and the University of New Mexico College of Pharmacy.

Educational Programs

Nuclear Education Online program began as an educational program for nuclear pharmacists.  The NEO program is expanding to provide specialized training in the following areas:

• Nuclear Pharmacists
• Nuclear Pharmacy Technicians
• Cyclotron Operator AU Training
• PET Education
• Nuclear Cardiology AU Training
• DOT Training
• Basic Radiation Safety Training

Comments from NEO students:

"I really enjoyed the course and thought it was a tremendous learning experience.  I will encourage my fellows to take this online course."   Dr. Sandra A.,  Pennsylvania

"I have taken many courses over the years and this is a good one."  Dr. John H.,  Georgia 

"It was a good course and I loved the convenience of it."  Dr. Ghazanfar K.,  Wisconsin

"I think the course is good.  Most of the material is well explained and reviewed appropriately in the self assessments and exams.  The support from the staff was excellent-emails were answered almost immediately, with appropriate considerations to comments."  Dr. Gila P.,  New York

"I had just finished the 100 hours in the traditional classroom course and your course was much more thorough and in-depth." Dr. Paul S., Florida

Online Courses

Registered Students can login at http://distance-ed.uams.edu

 

Students completing this program of 80 or 200 hours of didactic training with the 620 or 500 hours of experiential training will be eligible for certification by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission.  The student-centered curriculum will include interactive web based course materials, discussion groups, preceptor-led activities, and problem based learning case studies.  

Depending on the specific program, the NEO curriculum may consist of the following components:

1.  Introduction to Nuclear Education Online:  Before you step off into the nuclear physics, we want to make sure that you have the tools to succeed.  When you register in the program we will take you through a few exercises to make sure that you have the needed hardware and software (and know how to use them!) and refresh your memory on some basic math skills that may have become a little rusty.  

2.  Nuclear Physics:  An understanding of nuclear physics is critical to understanding radiation safety, radiopharmaceuticals and radiation biology.  Concepts and physical properties governing the atom to include systems and units of measure, atomic and nuclear structure, and particulate and electromagnetic radiation.  This material is fundamental to the entire curriculum.

3.  Instrumentation:  How does a GM meter work?  Why is important to determine the MCA counting efficiency?  This course will cover the operational principles of radiation detection equipment to include statistical application and quality control.  

4.  Radiation  Biology:  Introduction to the interactions of radiation and biological systems, including chronic and delayed effects through physical and chemical changes from radiation.  The biological basis for radiation safety will be presented.

5.  Radiation Safety:  A review of the legal, biological and administrative aspects of radiation protection in nuclear medicine. Emphasis on practical means of minimizing radiation exposure to the patient, staff and general public. 

Accepted by Florida Board of Pharmacy, Texas Bureau of Radiation Control, Nuclear Regulatory Commission, and the Certification Board of Nuclear Cardiology.

Education Goals

The objective of the program is to provide a high quality educational program to working professionals and students throughout the country. 

Advantages of the Nuclear Education Online Program:

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  High quality educational program
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  Student-centered interactive program
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  Training independent of locale
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  No need to leave home for education
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  Experienced faculty
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  Trained preceptors/mentors for each student
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  10 week didactic component (for radiopharmacists)
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  Problem-based-learning and interactive WebCT technology employed
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  Continuing education credit
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  Additional training and education for preceptors
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  Continued access to educational material following program completion

Nuclear Pharmacy Program: The NEO faculty has used the APhA Syllabus for Nuclear Pharmacy Training, developed by the leaders in the field of nuclear pharmacy, as the backbone for the NEO program curriculum.  The entire curriculum is mapped to the syllabus to ensure a comprehensive education and training program.  You can view the entire APhA Syllabus Click Here. 

Other Programs:  Curriculum development utilized guidelines of the appropriate regulatory agencies, such as the NRC and DOT.

Faculty

Nicki L. Hilliard, Pharm.D., MHSA, BCNP, FAPhA Professor, UAMS College of Pharmacy Associate Professor, UAMS College of Medicine University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences NLHilliard@uams.edu; 501-686-6398 Hilliard CV	Dr. Hilliard has over twenty years of experience teaching radiopharmacy at the University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences to pharmacy students, nuclear medicine technology students, and nuclear medicine & radiology resident physicians.  She also had seven years experience as a nuclear pharmacy manager for Syncor before coming to UAMS.  Dr. Hilliard is an innovative user of technology and has over ten years of experience designing material for the Internet.  She was named a Teaching Scholar in Distance Education by the University of Arkansas System and was recognized with the inaugural UAMS Educational Technology Excellence Award..  She serves as webmaster for the Nuclear Pharmacy website for which she received the American Pharmaceutical Association Award of Merit for her contributions to the nuclear medicine community.   Dr. Hilliard has held positions of national leadership in nuclear pharmacy including chair of the APhA Section on Nuclear Pharmacy and Chair of the BPS Nuclear Pharmacy Specialty Council.  She served as Member-at-Large of the APhA-APPM Executive Committee.  Dr. Hilliard received the 2008 William H. Briner Distinguished Achievement Award for Nuclear Pharmacy.  She served on the faculty of the ASNC Board Review in 2008 & 2009.
Dao Le, PharmD, BCNP NEO Curriculum Expansion Coordinator University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences Assistant Professor dle@uams.edu; 501-686-6361 Dao Le's CV	Dao Le, a Board Certified Nuclear Pharmacist, is an Assistant Professor of Nuclear Pharmacy at University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences. She received a BA degree in biology at Westminster College in Fulton, MO in 1998. She then continued on to University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences where she received a PharmD degree and a Radioactive Materials Authorized User certification. After pharmacy school, she joined the TycoHealthcare/Mallinckrodt as a nuclear staff pharmacist in Houston, TX. At Mallinckrodt she participated in many corporate initiatives including serving on the Practice of Pharmacy Advisory Committee, developing and implementing company Standard of Operating Procedures and served as chair the committee to revise the Mallinckrodt intern manual. She was also an active participant in student recruiting developments. While at Mallinckrodt in Houston, she also served as the radiation safety officer. She has a Board of Pharmacy license in Arkansas, Texas, Maryland, and Colorado. Dr. Le has been an active member of APhA and has served as APhA-APPM New Practitioner in the Nuclear Pharmacy Practice Section.
Jeffrey P. Norenberg, PharmD. BCNP, FASHP, FAPhA Associate Professor of Pharmacy Practice University of New Mexico College of Pharmacy jpnoren@unm.edu Norenberg CV	Jeff Norenberg, a Board Certified Nuclear Pharmacist, is a Professor of Pharmacy Practice and Chair of the Radiopharmacy Graduate Concentration at the University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center College of Pharmacy. Under the mentorship of William Hladik, he has established a practice caring for patients receiving diagnostic and therapeutic radiopharmaceuticals. He has informed pharmacists about the opportunities and responsibilities of pharmaceutical care in radiopharmacy at national and international meetings. He is a consultant to nuclear medicine physicians, radiologists, fellows, and residents, participating in decisions regarding patient treatment, and administering radiopharmaceuticals. He has conducted numerous pre-clinical and clinical research studies with novel radiopharmaceuticals and has implemented quality of life assessment in patients receiving therapeutic radiopharmaceuticals. As an educator, he has taught extensively on the clinical applications of radiopharmaceuticals to pharmacy students, physicians, radiology residents and fellows.  He has served on thesis committees of students seeking the Master of Science in Pharmaceutical Sciences degree with emphasis in radiopharmacy. He has authored numerous peer-reviewed journal articles, book chapters; and abstracts presented at national and international meetings, and he has received grants and contracts exceeding $1 million. He has received the United States Public Health Service Outstanding Achievement Citation and the Department of Interior Meritorious Service Commendation for his work in the practice of pharmacy.
Martha W. Pickett, MHSA, CNMT Chairman, Nuclear Medicine Technology, UAMS College of Health Related Professions PickettMarthaW@uams.edu  Pickett CV	Martha Pickett has chaired the Department of Nuclear Medicine Technology at UAMS since its inception in 1985.  This program, which offers a bachelor's degree in nuclear medicine technology, has already experienced the world of online education when it began offering its classroom courses to cohorts of students in multiple sites outside Little Rock beginning in 1999. Martha's educational background includes two bachelor's degrees, one in zoology and another in nuclear medicine technology.  She has her master's degree in health services administration and is completing coursework on a Ph.D. in public policy with an emphasis on health policy.  She has worked actively in the professional associations at the national level and has served as president of the Society of Nuclear Medicine Technologist Section.  She has also served on the board of directors of the Nuclear Medicine Technology Certification Board.
Kristina Wittstrom, RPh, BCNP, FAPhA Experiential Coordinator UNM College of Pharmacy aaaaa@unm.edu; 505-272-3661 Wittstrom CV	A graduate of the University of New Mexico College of Pharmacy specializing in radiopharmacy, entered commercial nuclear pharmacy in 1979.  Practiced in Southern California as pharmacy manager and radiation safety officer until 1993.  Became BCNP in 1982 with recertifications in 1993 and 2000. Joined the Syncor International Corporation Professional Development staff in 1993.  Responsibilities included coordinating and teaching in the internal Authorized User Radiopharmacist Training Program.  Served as technical support to practicing nuclear pharmacists.  Currently Experiential Coordinator for the Radiopharmacy Education program at University of New Mexico. Active in the APhA Section on Nuclear Pharmacy.  Most recent accomplishment served as chairperson of the Ad Hoc Committee for Nuclear Pharmacy Technician Training Program.  This program was accepted and published by the APhA.

Thanks for:

Nuclear Education Online (NEO) is an educational consortium between the University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences and the University of New Mexico College of Pharmacy.

Fusi Nuklir

Magnetically confined plasma in the Korean superconducting tokamak, KSTAR. The extreme temperature plasma radiates in a spectrum that our eyes can not see. What is visible in this image are the colder regions on the outer edge of the plasma. Photo: KSTAR. Plasma Confinement Physicists have been exploring the properties of plasmas within tokamak devices since the 1960s. The doughnut-shaped torus of the tokamak represented a major break-through in plasma science at the time: here temperature levels and plasma confinement times reached levels that had never been attained before. The ITER Tokamak chamber will be twice the size of the largest currently-functioning tokamak, with a plasma volume eight to ten times larger (830 cubic meters). Left to itself, the plasma would occupy all of the space in the chamber, however no material could withstand contact with the extreme-temperature plasma. Scientists are able to contain or 'confine' the plasma away from the walls by exploiting certain of its physical properties. Plasmas consist of charged particles - positive nuclei and negative electrons - that can be shaped and confined by magnetic forces. Like iron filings in the presence of a magnet, particles in the plasma will follow magnetic field lines. The magnetic field acts as a recipient that is not affected by heat like an ordinary solid container. In ITER, different types of magnetic fields will work in subtle combination to shape the plasma into the form of a ring - or torus - and isolate the very hot plasma from the relatively cold vessel walls in order to retain the energy for as long as possible. The vacuum vessel is the first safety confinement barrier, and will not be in contact with the plasma. Sumber: Web Resmi ITER

Reaktor Fusi

Reaktor Fusi

The ITER Divertor

The Divertor is one of the key components of the ITER machine. Situated along the bottom of the Vacuum Vessel, its function is to extract heat and Helium ash — both products of the fusion reaction — and other impurities from the plasma, in effect acting like a giant exhaust system. It will comprise two main parts: a supporting structure made primarily from stainless steel, and the plasma-facing components, weighing about 700 tons. The plasma-facing components will be made of Tungsten, a high-refractory material.

The three plasma-facing components of the ITER Divertor: the inner and the outer vertical targets, and the dome.

Located at the very bottom of the Vacuum Vessel, the ITER Divertor is made up of 54 remotely-removable cassettes, each holding three plasma-facing components, or targets. These are the inner and the outer vertical targets, and the dome. The targets are situated at the intersection of magnetic field lines where the high-energy plasma particles strike the components. Their kinetic energy is transformed into heat; the heat flux received by these components is extremely intense and requires active water cooling. The choice of the surface material for the Divertor is an important one. Only very few materials are able to withstand temperatures of up to 3000 ◦C for the projected 20-year lifetime of the ITER machine; these will be tested in ITER.

ITER will begin operations with a Carbon fibre-reinforced Carbon composite (CFC) Divertor target. This material presents the advantage of high thermal conductivity and it enables an easier learning process for the first years of ITER operation. A second Divertor set will be made of Tungsten which has the advantage of a lower rate of erosion and thus a longer lifetime.

Indonesian Nuclear Education Center

Pusat Pendidikan Nuklir Indonesia

Visi

Membangun Sekolah Menengah Kejuruan Nuklir Indonesia

SMK Nuklir Indonesia tahun 2018 sebanyak 18 Sekolah

Misi

1. Persiapan Kurikulum

2. Penelitian Kelayakan Oprasional

3. Pendanaan dan Oprasional

Fusion experiments by confinement method
Magnetic	International ITER Asia/Australia EAST (China) · ADITYA (India) · JT-60 and the Large Helical Device (Japan) · KSTAR (South Korea) · H-1NF (Australia) Europe JET (UK) · Tore Supra and TFR (France) · ASDEX Upgrade and Wendelstein 7-X (Germany) · T-15 (Russia) · FTU, IGNITOR and RFX-mod (Italy) · TCV (Switzerland) · MAST and START (UK) USA DIII-D · TFTR · NSTX · NCSX · UCLA ET · Alcator C-Mod · LDX · MST Commercial DEMO
Inertial	Laser Asia GEKKO XII (Japan) Europe HiPER (EU) · Asterix IV (Czech Republic) · LMJ, LIL and LULI2000 (France) · ISKRA (Russia) · Vulcan (UK) USA NIF · OMEGA · Nova · Nike · Shiva · Argus · Cyclops · Janus · Long path Non-laser USA Z machine · PACER
International Fusion Materials Irradiation Facility

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fusion_experiments"

Categories: Fusion power

Fusi Nuklir

Captured by an ultra-high-speed camera, a pellet of fuel is injected into a plasma at the ASDEX Upgrade Tokamak in Garching, Germany. Photo: EFDA. Reaching 150 000 000 °C One of the main requirements for achieving fusion is to heat the plasma particles to very high temperatures. In ITER, several heating methods will work concurrently to bring the plasma in the core of the machine to 150 million°C.  Within the tokamak, the changing magnetic fields that are used to control the plasma produce a heating effect. The magnetic fields create a high-intensity electrical current through induction, and as this current travels through the plasma, electrons and ions become energized and collide. Collisions create 'resistance' which results in heat, but paradoxically as the temperature of the plasma rises, this resistance - and therefore the heating effect - decreases. Heat transferred through high-intensity current - known as ohmic heating - is limited to a defined level. In order to obtain still higher temperatures and reach the threshold where fusion can occur, heating methods must be applied from outside of the tokamak.  Two families of external heating methods - neutral beam injection and high-frequency electromagnetic waves - will complement ohmic heating to bring the ITER plasma to temperature. Neutral beam injection consists in shooting high energy particles into the plasma. Outside of the tokamak, charged Deuterium particles are accelerated to the required energy level. These accelerated ions then pass through an "ion beam neutralizer" where their electrical charge is removed. The high velocity neutral particles can then be injected into the heart of the plasma where, by way of rapid collision, they transfer their energy to the plasma particles.  Millions of watts of heating power can be delivered to the plasma using this technique, bringing its temperature closer to the level where fusion can occur. A third source of heat - high frequency electromagnetic waves - is planned into the design of the ITER Tokamak to boost temperatures to the required 150 million°C. In the same way that microwaves transfer heat to food in a microwave oven, the energy carried by high-frequency waves introduced into the plasma is transferred to the charged particles, increasing the velocity of their chaotic motion, and at the same time their temperature. Following this principal three types of waves will be employed in ITER, each matching a frequency of plasma ions and electrons in the interior of the ITER machine to maximize heat transfer.  Ohmic heating, neutral beam injection and high-frequency waves will work together in the ITER tokamak to bring the plasma to a temperature where fusion can occur. Ultimately, researchers hope to achieve a "burning plasma" - one in which the energy of the Helium nuclei produced by the fusion reaction is enough to maintain the temperature of the plasma. The external heating methods can then be strongly reduced or switched off altogether. A burning plasma in which at least 50 percent of the energy to drive the fusion reaction is generated internally is an essential step to reaching the goal of fusion power generation. Sumber: Web Resmi ITER